Hey Sparks.
With very few exceptions, PWM (pulse-width-modulation) boosts the battery voltage to a set level, usually the device's highest voltage, sometimes a bit higher. Then it pulses that voltage several times per second to obtain the overall voltage that's been set. In the case of the iStick, it apparently boosts voltage to 5.8V. Then it pulses 5.8V 48 times per second (48 Hz). Those 48 pulses per second can be very short or much longer until the output voltage looks constant on test equipment. The percentage of time (per second) that the voltage is on (vs. off) is called it's duty cycle.
The below image shows a device with a peak of 5V firing at 20%, 50% & 75% duty cycles.
View attachment 6865
Here's where it gets kind of tricky... If we multiply the peak voltage (Vpk) by the duty cycle (C%) we get the average voltage (Vavg, shown above).
We know that firing a Vavg of 3.5V into our 1.8Ω coil creates much higher Wattage at the coil than a constant 3.5V.
For example, using the iStick's specs:
Ohm's Law (V²/R=W) tells us that a constant 3.5V into a 1.8Ω coil will give us 6.8W.
W also know a different formula is used to determine Watts from a PWM Vavg signal:
(Vpk²/R) * C% = W or in our case, (5.8²/1.8Ω) * (3.5/5.8) = 11.3W
6.8W vs. 11.3W is a big difference.
We use RMS (root-mean-square) Voltage to obtain the Watts that constant Voltage provides.
It is suspected that the iStick is plugging an Average Voltage (Vavg) into Ohm's Law, rather than an RMS or constant voltage, providing much higher Watts at the coil. If true, it's all about faulty software NOT hardware and could be fixed rather simply and cheaply for future runs. Few people are questioning whether the iStick is firing below native battery Voltage. We know they're using PWM. We're questioning the formula used to set and display the voltage; ie average voltage (Vavg) or RMS voltage (Vrms).
Hope this helps!